What drives the program choices for language students? In theory, it should be the needs and abilities of these students, an understanding of language learning along with different cultures as well as the available resources such as labs, libraries and computer-assisted instruction.

In the first part of this article, we discussed submersion, intensive ESL programs and pullout ESL. In Part II, we will take a look at a few more models.

Structured immersion in bilingual programs

Bilingual programs vary, but they are based on the notions that L1 development positively supports L2 development and that concepts transfer across languages.

In structured immersion, students are taught in English by teachers who are proficient in the students' home language. The students are all linguistically homogenous. The theory behind this approach is that learning occurs when the input is comprehensible.

This approach differs from the intensive model in that the class in the intensive model is made up of speakers from many different language groups and the teachers do not necessarily speak the different home languages.

Transitional bilingual education

In TBE, the initial language of instruction is the students' home language. These programs usually last 2-3 years as the learners gradually shift to English as the primary language of instruction. A primary characteristic of TBE programs is first-language literacy. The bilingual curriculum corresponds to the main curriculum, and students are grouped by grade level and L1.

TBE programs are based on the theory of transfer, which is supported by the linguistic interdependence hypothesis. There is a common underlying language proficiency that makes possible the transfer of cognitive academic and literacy skills across languages. The higher-order cognitive skills, such as summarizing, inferring, predicting and analyzing, all transfer from one language to another.

Native language use and development have psychological benefits in addition to serving as practical tools. These skills allow access to academic content, permit more effective interaction and provide access to prior knowledge. Using and valuing the L1 support and enhance the students' learning and also reduce culture shock.

However, research shows the 2-3-year time spread is not enough for the students to attain academic language proficiency in English. It takes 2-3 years to become proficient in basic communication skills and 4-10 years to approach grade-level competence in L2 academic skills.

Also, TBE programs facilitate English at the expense of the home language. The result is the creation of subtractive bilinguals — students who are losing the home language.

Two-way bilingual education

Two-way bilingual education programs serve both the nonspeakers who learn English and the English speakers who learn a new language. The two-way classroom consists of a balanced number of language minority students and monolingual English speakers.

In these programs, a two-way cultural exchange takes place. In order for them to work, the participants in the programs must be highly motivated to learn each others' language. Such a situation occurs where two languages share equal status in a country French and English in Canada, for example.

Each learner maintains the home language and adds a new one, unlike transitional programs where the home language is weakened or even lost. These programs represent a pluralistic view of language and assume that bilingualism is cognitively and socially beneficial to the learners. They provide opportunities for language minority students and English-proficient students to learn and grow together fostering a respect and understanding for the languages and cultures.

Perhaps the main problem is the fact that there are several different home languages among the student population. Also, it would be impossible to find teachers for all the different languages.

Proficiency and language teaching

Proficiency is the outcome of language learning. The goal of the movement is to have the learners create with language rather than learn and repeat materials. Learners do more than just know about the language or recite lists. They are trained to use their skills outside of the classroom in a variety of situations and contexts. The movement is changing materials goals and approaches to teaching.

Alice C. Omaggio suggests the following steps toward proficiency-oriented classrooms where the materials and approaches provide opportunities for the students to use the language in a range of contexts likely to be encountered by ESL learners:

  • Authentic material is used as much as possible.
  • Students are encouraged to interact with each other and express their own meanings as soon as possible.
  • Language practice is creative and communicative.
  • Opportunities are provided for the learners to carry out functions or tasks likely to be necessary for living and interacting in the new culture.
  • Creative situations involving a problem (lost luggage, the wrong order in a restaurant, no change at the post office) involve the students and allow them to actively integrate their stored experiences, personal "schema" and linguistic abilities.

The results make for lively discussion and interesting writing assignments.

Cultural understanding, along with linguistic concerns, is promoted. Judith A. Muyskens gives a checklist for judging a textbook:

  • The first third of the book should provide basic survival situations and courtesy formulas along with question forms and major verb tenses including common irregular verbs.
  • The second third should include ways of exchanging information, taking care of needs (e.g., ordering a meal) and the past tenses.
  • The last third should include more abstract topics where students can express opinions and provide creative input.

In general, practical vocabulary, listening activities, composition topics and realia should be part of a proficiency-based text.